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With the growth of social media as a platform to share information, veganism is becoming more visible, and could be becoming more accepted in sports and in the health and fitness industry. However, to date, there appears to be a lack of literature that discusses how to manage vegan diets for athletic purposes. This article attempted to review literature in order to provide recommendations for how to construct a vegan diet for athletes and exercisers. While little data could be found in the sports nutrition literature specifically, it was revealed elsewhere that veganism creates challenges that need to be accounted for when designing a nutritious diet. This included the sufficiency of energy and protein; the adequacy of vitamin B12, iron, zinc, calcium, iodine and vitamin D; and the lack of the long-chain n-3 fatty acids EPA and DHA in most plant-based sources. However, via the strategic management of food and appropriate supplementation, it is the contention of this article that a nutritive vegan diet can be designed to achieve the dietary needs of most athletes satisfactorily. Further, it was suggested here that creatine and β-alanine supplementation might be of particular use to vegan athletes, owing to vegetarian diets promoting lower muscle creatine and lower muscle carnosine levels in consumers. Empirical research is needed to examine the effects of vegan diets in athletic populations however, especially if this movement grows in popularity, to ensure that the health and performance of athletic vegans is optimised in accordance with developments in sports nutrition knowledge.
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Vegan diets might be becoming more visible, owing to the proliferation of social media as a means to share information, experiences and discuss opinions [1]. Promoted by some for alleged health benefits such as reduced risk of heart disease, lower LDL, blood pressure, type II diabetes and cancer [2, 3], veganism is a form of vegetarianism that prohibits the consumption of animal products [4]. Several high-profile athletes, such as former world heavyweight champion boxer David Haye and ladies tennis champion Venus Williams, have reportedly adopted vegan diets in recent times. Quite often, veganism is the product of strong ethical beliefs concerning animal welfare, and vegan activists have been subject to stigma [5], stereotyping [6] and negative attitudes [7], due in part to their vocal denigration of animal consumerism. The increased visibility of high-profile vegan competitors might suggest that veganism could be becoming more appealing for some, especially if more successful athletes adopt and publicize their vegan lifestyles.
Poorly constructed vegan diets however might predispose individuals to macronutrient (protein, n-3) and micronutrient (vitamin B12 and vitamin D; iron, zinc, calcium, iodine) deficiencies [2, 3, 8, 9]. This is of particular concern if little attention is paid to accommodating for the nutrients that are excluded due to the elimination of animal products from the diet [9]. Some have alleged that a vegan diet could offer potential performance benefits due to the antioxidant (polyphenols), micronutrient (vitamin C, E) and carbohydrate-rich foods typical of plant-based diets assisting training and enhancing recovery [10, 11]. However, empirical research validating this claim is either equivocal or missing [12]. Indeed, there appears to be a lack of research into veganism in sport in general, despite interest in literature elsewhere [13]. In order to ensure that vegan diets meet both health and performance needs, basic dietary requirements have to be met and sport-specific diet-related objectives need to be achieved [9, 14]. The aim of this article is to address this point, and to provide practical recommendations for sports dieticians, coaches and trainers who might work with vegan athletes. Particular attention will be paid to the achievement of macro and micronutrient requirements for athletic and health-related purposes in this article, as well as a discussion of supplements and ergogenic aids that might be of use to performers who adopt this lifestyle choice.
The information in this narrative has been extrapolated from a broad range of academic disciplines, such as the epidemiological and health sciences, in addition to sports nutrition literature. This is due to little information being available that discusses or investigates veganism in sport and health and fitness-related contexts. Therefore, in some instances, recommendations provided herein have yet to be fully authenticated via scientific investigation, and serve as illustrative concepts until further validation can be undertaken.
Plant-based protein supplements that feature in the literature and are commercially available include soy (and soy isolate), pea, rice, hemp and composite/blended protein products [45,46,47,48]. Supplemental protein might be of interest to vegan athletes, particularly if achieving sufficient protein via wholefoods is either difficult or inconvenient. Emerging data is beginning to support the efficacy of plant-based-protein powders at improving recovery from training [48] and fostering muscle hypertrophy as part of a resistance training program [45]. Recent evidence also suggests like-for-like responses when comparing supplemental plant and dairy proteins on body composition and exercise performance as part of a training programme [48], contrasting previously-reported data [45]. In comparison to dairy-based protein supplements however, plant-based supplements appear to be much less researched at this time, and further research is needed to understand the effects of individual (rice, pea, hemp, etc.) and blended products on postprandial MPS [49].
Due to an absence of marine-sourced fats, vegans appear to consume fewer n-3 fatty acids and possess lower serum n-3 fatty acid levels than omnivores and other vegetarians [8, 13, 63, 70]. This might have important health and performance implications. The n-3 fatty acids are important for normal growth and development, and appear to play an important role in cardiovascular health [71], in inflammatory and chronic disease [72], and might improve exercise-induced bronchoconstriction (EIB) and immunity [73]. Of interest to athletes, n-3 fats might also increase nitric oxide production [71, 74], and improve heart-rate variability [75]. Both n-6 and n-3 fatty acids are parent fatty acids for eicosanoids (prostaglandins, thromboxanes and leukotrienes), and n-3 fatty acids appear to possess anti-inflammatory, antithrombotic, antiarrhythmic; hypolipidemic, vasodilatory and antiproliferative properties [71, 72]. Both n-6 and n-3 fatty acids are essential, however the long chain n-3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) are considered to be under-consumed in the modern western diet in general [72], and in vegans in particular [47, 70].
Achieving micronutrient sufficiency is an important concern for all athletes. The AND have indicated that attention should be paid to achieving adequacy in vitamin B12, iron, zinc, calcium, iodine and vitamin D intakes when designing a vegan diet in particular [47]. Poorly designed diets might predispose individuals to deficiency regardless of predilection, which could have detrimental health and performance implications [2, 9, 12]. This needs to be understood by those seeking to adopt veganism, and strategies to mitigate the risks of under-consuming these nutrients need to be present if a vegan diet is to optimize health and performance. Table 3 compares the nutritional implications of several diets (omnivorous, pesco-vegetarian, vegetarian and vegan), and provides recommendations for athletes and practitioners. The following section will identify and elaborate upon concerns highlighted in the literature, based upon research indicating what micronutrients might be under-consumed in a vegan diet [2,3,4, 8, 14, 47, 63, 70, 87].
The iron status of vegetarians and vegans has received attention in the literature [92,93,94], and it appears that owing to a diet rich in whole-grains and legumes, both vegetarians and vegans consume similar amounts of iron as omnivores [9, 63]. However, issues with the bioavailability of plant-based iron might mean that vegans need to pay attention to ensuring that sufficiency is prioritized [92, 93]. The main source of iron in the vegan diet is found in the non-haem form, which is less bioavailable than the haem iron found in animal products [93]. Vegan diets also commonly contain dietary inhibitors such as the polyphenols tannin (found in coffee, tea, and cocoa) and phytates (found in whole grains and legumes), which reduce the amount of iron absorbed from the diet. Research into the iron status of vegans has found that female vegans appear to have lower iron stores than omnivores, and are more prone to iron-deficiency anaemia [63, 94, 95]. Male vegans appear to have a similar iron status as non-vegans and are less impacted by iron status [63]. Iron-deficiency anaemia is caused by insufficient consumption of iron (or insufficient absorption of iron) and is a decrease in red blood cells (RBCs) or haemoglobin, leading to symptoms such as tiredness and fatigue; weakness, shortness of breath and reduced exercise tolerance [95]. Iron deficiency without anaemia has also been shown to reduce endurance capacity, increase energy expenditure and impair adaptation to endurance exercise in females experiencing tissue depletion [96]. Supplementation has been shown to correct such problems and might be warranted if adequacy cannot be achieved via the diet (97). Indeed, achieving an iron-sufficient diet appears to be rudimentary for all female athletes [95,96,97]. 2ff7e9595c
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